brain tumors • Brain tumors represent a large and heterogeneous group of diseases involving the brain and related structures. The variability of these is very large, ranging from benign and curable tumors without major complications until very aggressive and malignant processes, difficult to treat and produce serious sequelae and high mortality.
risk factors in the formation of brain tumors
-Hereditary Genetic Factors
In diseases such as neurofibromatosis or Von Recklinhausen disease have been observed acoustic neuromas and a variety of gliomas. Glioma optic nerve is common.
• Tuberous sclerosis, disease-Lindau Von Hipel and Sturge-Weber syndrome is a disease associated with the presence of CNS tumors. Approximately 16% of patients with brain tumors have a family history of cancer.
Environmental Factors:
• have been related to the presence of CNS tumors, radiation, trauma, occupational factors and infectious factors. Radiation
• It has been reported an association between risk of glioma and meningioma and a history of repeated X-ray exposures. Injuries
• It has been reported higher incidence of meningioma in patients who complain of severe traumatic brain injury several years before diagnosis. Hormonal Factors
• The prevalence of meningiomas in women, or their growth during pregnancy, suggesting a hormonal factor.
Immunosuppression:
• The patients with AIDS and medically immunosuppressed are at increased risk of developing primary brain lymphoma.
• However, little is known about the etiology of CNS tumors and is not yet possible to take timely preventive measures. Classification
• A wide variety of brain tumors, dependent in the genesis of different cell types found in the brain and its surroundings. Thus, we have tumors of the same cells that form the brain and nerves:
• gliomas (the most common tumors, "primary")
• neurocytoma
• Schwannomas or neurinomas
• Tumors of the membranes covering the brain or meninges (meningiomas)
• Tumours related to bony structures
• •
pseudotumors cysts or tumors which has associated glands (pituitary gland tumor) and embryonal tumors
• •
primitive blood vessels associated with tumors; etc.
• Another important group is made up of brain metastases or tumors "side" who have traveled from another organ with a primary tumor or cancer and has been installed in the brain, where they grow back like a tumor.
Symptoms:
• Symptoms vary, depending on size and location of the tumor. A growing tumor is often associated with fluid accumulation, because it exerts pressure on the brain. Symptoms may develop gradually or rapidly.
• Symptoms may include:
• Headache. The vast majority of headaches are not caused by brain tumors. The headaches associated with brain tumors have the following features:
- gets progressively worse over a period of months or weeks
- Worse in the morning or cause you to wake during the night
- are different from common headaches
- Aggravated change of posture, straining or coughing
• Seizures
• Nausea or vomiting • Weakness in arms and / or legs
• Loss of sensation in the arms and / or legs
• Difficulty walking • Changes
vision
• Language problems • Sleepiness
• Memory problems • changes in personality
Clinical manifestations:
• Despite their diversity pathological, clinical effects of brain tumors depend on a number of pathophysiological mechanisms relatively scarce. One of the most important concepts regarding the pathophysiology of brain tumors that grow within the limits of the rigid and inflexible skull. As the volume of the cranial cavity is constant, any expansion process will necessarily produce a proportional rise in intracranial pressure (ICP). Once they pass the compensation mechanisms, continued growth will be at the expense of volumetric brain needs a critical event that results in distortion and herniation of the brain and ultimately death. Initially, the brain shows a remarkable tolerance to the effects comprehensive and invasive brain tumors, so early symptoms can be scarce.
• Eventually, all brain tumors cause symptoms by one or more of the following mechanisms
1) Increase in ICP caused by the mass of the tumor, brain swelling or obstruction of the flow of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF )
2) destruction local compression or distortion of brain tissue, resulting in specific neurological deficits
3) compression or distortion of cranial nerves, resulting in paralysis of these features
4) local electrochemical instability seizures.
• Symptoms of brain tumors are of two basic types:
- no focus, related to the overall effect of increased ICP
- focal-specific localization and functional changes attributable to the area of \u200b\u200bbrain tissue affected.
- The elevations of ICP are responsible for many of the nonspecific symptoms produced by brain tumors.
- Headache is one symptom that most often accompanies brain tumors. When due to a carcinoma, tends to show some special features. Thus, usually a type headache "pressure" of moderate intensity, typically generalized or retroorbital more intense in the early morning, these headaches tend to worsen with coughing, exertion, leaning forward or any other type Valsalva maneuver is due to irritation of the pain-sensitive structures (dura or blood vessels), often accompanied by nausea and vomiting, the latter sometimes described as the "shotgun" especially in children.
- The effects of raised ICP in the optic nerve cause blurred vision, expansion of the blind spot and papilledema. The sixth cranial nerve, because of its long intracranial course, is very sensitive to elevations in ICP and functional impairment resulting in lateral rectus weakness, and diplopia. Finally, in young children, increases in ICP may lead to diastasis of cranial sutures, with growth in head circumference.
• The focal symptoms are location-specific variables as dependent neuroanatomical structures affected, and are characterized by loss gradual and progressive neurological functions.
• Injuries affecting the motor cortex produce a contralateral hemiparesis.
• Involvement of the sensory cortex alters one or more sensory functions.
• The impairment of memory, trial and personality is typical of the lesions of frontal and temporal lobes.
• Injuries to the dominant frontal and temporal hemispheres can result in various deficiencies of language.
• occipital lesions produce contralateral hemianopsia homonymous visual defects.
• The posterior fossa tumors tend to alterations of functions of the cerebellum, loss of coordination ipsilateral (cerebellum) and ataxia (cerebellar vermis). Tumors in the region of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland can produce a wide variety of systemic endocrine disruption.
• When brain tumors affect the cranial nerves, leading to a wide variety of symptoms that have great value in the study of localization: the base lesions of the anterior fossa cause anosmia (cranial nerve I).
• paraselares neoplasms affecting the nerve and chiasm produce characteristic patterns of loss of vision. The optic nerve compression monoocular usually cause loss of vision, while compression chiasm is associated with a bitemporal hemianopsia.
• Lesions involving the cavernous sinus producing paralysis of cranial nerves that pass through it (III, IV, V and VI). The posterior fossa tumors can cause facial anesthesia (par V), facial weakness (even Vll), hearing impairment (VIII pair) and difficulty swallowing (cranial nerves IX, X).
• Finally, brain tumors can cause a partial or generalized seizure activity. In fact, the recent convulsions in an adult should be considered secondary to space occupying lesion until proven otherwise. Although seizure activity may appear in the context of any structural abnormality supratentorial (neoplastic or not), its association with brain tumors is usually caused by prolonged compression or irritation of the brain tissue immediately adjacent to the tumor. Epileptogenic capacity as compressed or infiltrated brain is a phenomenon that develops over time, seizures of long duration usually indicate tumor biological evolution.
OVERVIEW OF TREATMENT OPTIONS
treatment of brain tumors in adults:
• There are treatments for all patients with brain tumors. Using three kinds of treatment:
• radiotherapy • surgery
• chemotherapy • Surgery is the most common treatment for brain tumors in adults.
• To remove the cancer of the brain, cut a section of skull bone to reach the brain, craniotomy. After the bone is put back in place or put a piece of metal or cloth to cover the opening in the skull.
• Radiation therapy is the use of X-rays produced by a linear accelerator or cobalt machine and its purpose is to eliminate cancer cells from the outside and shrink tumors (EBRT). Radiotherapy can also be used by putting materials that produce radiation in the tumor (radioisotopes) to kill cancer cells from the inside (internal radiation therapy).
• Chemotherapy uses drugs to kill cancer cells.
• Clinical trials are ongoing with biological therapy to treat the body that fight cancer. In this therapy uses materials made by the body or made in a laboratory to boost, direct or restore the body's natural defenses against disease. Biological therapy is also known as therapy biological response modifier or immunotherapy.
Surgery
• Surgical removal is the most important initial therapeutic approach in virtually all primary brain tumors. Fulfills three essential and immediate objectives: Sets
histological diagnosis
quickly relieves intracranial pressure and mass effect, thus improving neurological function Achieves
oncological cytoreduction may prolong life, improve the efficacy and safety adjuvant treatments such as radiotherapy, or both.
• The technological and conceptual advances of neurosurgery are continuous and have allowed the design safest and most effective forms of treatment. Tumors previously considered inaccessible, such as those located in deep regions can be addressed safely using a surgical microscope, microinstrumentación and microsurgery. • Few
intracranial tumors beyond the direct surgical access achieved by the current neurosurgical technology, laser, ultrasonic aspirators, ultrasounds, stereotactic surgery procedures and neuronavigation.
• In the majority of benign extra-axial lesions (meningiomas and acoustic neuromas), the goal of surgery is total removal healing potential. In these cases, the challenge is to remove the tumor as completely as possible, while reducing surgical trauma to adjacent nerve structures. This can be achieved, especially with the use of intraoperative electrophysiological monitoring techniques, which can alert the surgeon about the risk to vulnerable neural structures during the removal of the tumor.
• In invasive malignant intra-axial tumors of glial origin in most cases, surgery can get to the histological diagnosis and is a measure of temporal control, it reduces the mass effect and ICP. By its nature locally aggressive, malignant brain tumors are not susceptible of cure at present and require control to go to multimodal strategies. Although there is some discussion on what should be the mission of aggressive surgery in the treatment of these lesions, most of the neuro-oncologists agree that the "debulking" and elimination of tumor surgical goals are reasonable, provided that achieve without causing neurological deficits.
• Morbidity and mortality of cranial operations have decreased dramatically in recent decades. Mortality rates at 30 days after the extirpation of brain tumors are generally less than 3% in recent series. The rate of complications depends on the nature of the tumor and its location. Severe complications (bleeding at the site of surgery, infection and permanent neurological damage) together, affect < 10% de los pacientes.
Corticosteroids and cerebral edema
• By mechanisms not yet clarified, it is common for brain tumors, both benign and malignant causing vasogenic edema in the peritumoral brain tissue. Sometimes can be massive brain swelling, which contributes significantly to the overall mass and accelerated neurological deficits clinically all caused by the tumor itself.
• Corticosteroids have become an important therapeutic role antiiflamatorios agents capable of rapid and effective reduction of peritumoral edema. The fact that these agents may occur often on their own, immediate and dramatic improvement of clinical status and neurological function, frames the pathophysiological contribution to the deterioration of global cerebral edema secondary to neoplasia.
• In general, steroids are administered in the perioperative period and their doses are reduced gradually after the removal of the tumor. Also serve a palliative function in patients with progressive and recurrent malignant tumors, where they can enhance the function residual neurological, at least temporarily. Radiotherapy
• It has demonstrated the efficacy of radiotherapy in the majority of malignant brain tumors. Once the pathologic diagnosis of malignancy and performed brain surgery to remove the maximum, the default is that radiation therapy is indicated. Although the different histological entities show individual differences in their sensitivity to radiation, the improvement in survival in the short term (1-5 years) to get to her becoming well established in use in most CNS tumors. The main factor limiting their long-term effects is the level of tumoricidal radiation doses, which often exceed the tolerance thresholds of the CNS. Even when prescribed dose of radiation contained within the set tolerance levels (40-60 Gy), the brain is vulnerable to various toxic effects.
• Acute reactions that occur during or immediately after radiation, are the result of acute brain swelling and is manifested by increased neurological deficits. Fortunately, these reactions respond well to steroids and generally are reversible, from 1 to 3 months after radiation syndrome usually appears similar but delayed, also reversible with steroids. The reaction brain less frequent but more severe and irreversible, is known as radiation necrosis, which can appear months or years after radiation therapy. It is a progressive brain reaction presumably due to direct toxicity to the brain and its microvasculature.
• Affected patients suffer from an insidious and progressive deterioration, focal neurologic signs and dementia. Radiation necrosis may be difficult to distinguish from tumor recurrence, and both show the clinical and imaging characteristics similar. In these circumstances, treatment may include steroids or rescue decompressive intervention. However, many patients are often in terminal stages of their disease, so the most appropriate treatment is, in most cases, conservative and palliative.
• As the survival of patients with CNS tumors is prolonged, there are several additional complications of long-term radiation aroused increasing concern. These include hypopituitarism, occlusive disease of the arteries and radiation-induced oncogenesis. The radiation-associated tumors (meningiomas, sarcomas and gliomas) are a rare late complication that usually occurs decades after cranial radiation. More worrying are the risks of radiation in young children, such as learning disorders, pituitary insufficiency, the myelopathy and spinal deformities, in addition to the adverse effects mentioned above. As a CNS myelination usually completed towards the 2 to 3 years of age, radiation therapy prior to these dates is especially dangerous and generally should be avoided. Chemotherapy
• Despite periodic episodes cause short-term optimism, chemotherapy has not yet produced significant impact on the treatment of malignant brain tumors. Virtually all available antitumor agents for the treatment of hematologic malignancies and systemic also have been studied in brain tumors. Except for some recent successes in certain childhood tumors such as germinoma and medulloblastoma, this therapy has not produced consistent benefits for most patients. • In purely
cancer, brain tumors, with highly localized position, relatively small tumor mass and metastatic nature should respond well to chemotherapy, however, these factors are offset by the peculiar complexity of the CNS, hamatoencefálica barrier which severely limit access to most antitumor agents. Although farmacolofisiológica integrity of this barrier is altered in varying degrees among different brain tumors, the penetration of most chemotherapeutic agents remains limited.
• However, a small number of non-polar soluble compounds and low molecular weight able to freely cross the blood brain barrier intact. These include the nitrosoureas, the hydroxyureas and diazoquinona (AZQ).
• Access from other less permeable agents (methotrexate, vincristine, cisplatin) can sometimes be facilitated by breaking the osmotic blood-brain barrier, or by Intrathecal and intra-arterial administration. Of these six agents, the nitrosoureas and hydroxyureas are the best studied. In a recent analysis of prospective randomized studies conducted in the last decade has shown that chemotherapy given after surgery and radiation for malignant gliomas, provides a modest increase in survival.
• The average survival rate at 24 months was 23.4% in the group receiving chemotherapy and 15.9% in those treated with surgery and radiotherapy. However, this gain is small but statistically significant, it can often be masked by other variables such as age and functional at the time that expresses the tumor.
Other adjunctive treatments
• Almost without exception, virtually all patients with malignant brain tumors eventually develop local recurrence, although the treatment has been aggressive and multimodal (surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy). In the last decade has significantly defined adjuvant strategies to control local tumor growth, among which are alternative methods of administration of radiation and immunotherapy. Of these, interstitial brachytherapy and stereotactic radiosurgery are gradually gaining acceptance, if While immunotherapy also get some minor results in certain patients. All these modalities are options that can be offered.
CRANIOTOMY:
• Definition: The surgery is performed to treat brain injuries and its surrounding structures through an incision in the skull (craniotomy).
Description:
• The scalp is partially shaved, cleaned and prepared for surgery, an incision through the scalp and the skull is punctured. While doing brain surgery involves removing a portion of cranial bone (usually temporarily) which is then placed back and set in place.
Directions:
• The brain surgery may be needed to treat: brain tumors
• • bleeding (hemorrhage) or blood clots (hematomas) from injuries (subdural or epidural hematomas)
• weakness of blood vessels (cerebral aneurysms)
• arteriovenous malformations (AVM, abnormal blood vessels)
• damage to the lining of the brain (dura)
• accumulations of infection in the brain (brain abscesses)
• severe facial neuralgia or pain (eg neuralgia trigeminal or tic douloureux)
• head injury and skull fracture repair
Risks:
• Risks for any anesthesia are:
• Drug reactions
• breathing problems • The risks for any surgery are :
• infection • bleeding
• Additional risks of brain surgery are:
• cerebral tissue injury
• blood vessel damage
• muscle weakness or paralysis or nerve
• loss of mental functions (memory, speaking, understanding)
Expectations after surgery
• The results depend largely on the underlying disease being treated, the patient's general health, the extent of the procedure and the surgical techniques employed. Convalescence
• Recovery time ranges from 1 to 4 weeks and full recovery can take up to 8 weeks.
• Brain (brain) is located inside the skull, which is formed by a series of bones. The skull protects and supports the brain.
• Brain surgery is performed to treat: brain tumors
• • Bleeding (hemorrhage) or blood clots from injuries (subdural hematoma or epidural)
• Weakness of blood vessels (cerebral aneurysm)
• Damage to tissues covering the brain (dura)
• pockets of infection in the brain (abscesses brain)
• Severe pain or facial nerve (trigeminal neuralgia or tic douloureux)
• Epilepsy • The craniotomy is a surgical procedure that can enter the brain through the skull. Shaving the scalp for an incision and then make a hole through the skull. He takes a piece of the skull while the brain is operated and is put back before suturing the scalp.
• The results depend on the origin, severity and location of the problem.
herniated nucleus pulposus (HNP)
Alternative Names: Cervical Radiculopathy, Herniated disc, herniated intervertebral disk; Radiculopathy lumbar intervertebral disc prolapse, ruptured disc, herniated disc
Definition:
• A herniated disc is a dislocated disc herniated disc or along the spinal cord. The condition occurs when all or part of the soft center of a spinal disk is forced to pass through a weakened part of the disc.
Causes and risk factors:
• The bones of the spine or vertebrae running down the back, connecting the skull to the pelvis. These bones protect nerves that come out of the brain, down the back and then travel from there throughout the body. The spinal vertebrae are separated by disks filled with a soft, gelatinous substance, which provide cushioning to the spine. These disks may herniate (move out of place) or rupture from trauma or strain.
• The spine is divided into several segments: the cervical spine (neck), thoracic spine (part of the back behind the chest), lumbar spine (lower back) and sacral spine (the part connected to the pelvis).
• The Radiculopathy refers to any disease affecting the spinal nerve roots. A herniated disk is one cause of radiculopathy (sciatica).
• Most hernias occur in the lower back or lumbar spine area. Lumbar disk herniation occurs 15 times more frequently than cervical disc herniation (neck) and is one of the most common causes of back pain. For its part, the cervical discs are affected 8% of cases, while discs of mid-back (thoracic) in only 1 to 2%.
• Nerve roots (Large nerves that branch off the spinal cord) may become compressed resulting in neurological symptoms such as sensory or motor changes.
• Disk herniation occurs more frequently in middle-aged men and elderly, especially those involved in strenuous physical activity. Other risk factors include any congenital conditions that affect the size of the lumbar canal.
How does it occur?
• The fissure, protrusion or herniated disc occurs when pressure inside the disc is greater than the resistance of the fibrous. As the fibrous is third thicker in its anterior wall in the later, most of the cracks, protrusions and herniations occur in the latter.
• The typical mechanism consists of the following movement sequence:
• Bending the spine forward: When you do the wheel is more load on the front. When jelly-like nucleus pulposus is compressed against the back wall of the fibrous. • Load weight
important: When do you tend to be compressed a vertebra against the other, increasing the pressure within the disc.
• Extension of the spine with the weight loaded: In doing so, the increased pressure load disc that carries the weight is "squeezing" the core pulposus back harder. If the pressure against the back wall of the fibrous enough, the envelope tears (fissures disk), bulges (prorusión disk) or part (herniated disk).
• A similar effect can be achieved by repeated flexion and extension movements with a smaller load or no load. Each time you generate small impacts against the rear wall of the fibrous.
• These mechanisms occur more readily when the muscles of the back are not very powerful. If they are sufficiently developed, these muscles protect the disc by several mechanisms. Symptoms
LUMBAR DISK HERNIA SYMPTOMS: Severe
• Lumbago • Pain that radiates to the buttocks, legs and feet
• Pain that worsens with coughing, straining, or laughing
• Tingling or numbness in the legs or feet
• Muscle weakness or atrophy in later stages
• Muscle spasm
SYMPTOMS OF CERVICAL DISK HERNIA:
• Neck pain, especially in the back and sides
• Deep pain near or over the scapula on the affected side
• Pain radiating to the shoulder, upper arm, forearm, and rarely the hand, fingers or
• Worsening chest pain when coughing, straining, or laughing
• Increased pain when bending the neck or turning head to one side
• cervical muscle spasm
• Weak arm muscles
Signs and tests
• A history and physical examination of pain may be sufficient to diagnose a herniated disc. The doctor perform a neurological exam to evaluate muscle reflexes, sensation and muscle strength. Often, examination of the spine revealed a decrease in the curvature of the spine in the affected area.
• Pain in the leg occurs when the person sits on the exam table and lift your leg straight up usually suggests a herniated lumbar disc.
• "foraminal compression test of Spurling" is done to diagnose cervical radiculopathy. For this test, you will bend your head forward and sideways, while the physician applies a slight downward pressure on the top of the head. In general, increased pain or numbness during this test is indicative of cervical radiculopathy.
DIAGNOSTIC TESTS:
• You can take a spine radiograph to rule out other causes of neck pain or back. However, it is not possible to diagnosis herniated disk by a radiograph of the spine.
• Spine MRI or spine CT will reveal the spinal canal compression by the herniated disc.
• myelogram may be done to determine the size and location of the hernia.
• You can take an EMG to determine exactly what the involved nerve root.
• You can also conduct a test of nerve conduction velocity.
Treatment:
• The main treatment for a slipped disc is a short period of rest anti-inflammatory analgesics and physical therapy followed. Over 95% of people who follow these treatments will recover and return to normal activities. A small percentage of people need additional treatment may include steroid injections or surgery.
DRUGS:
• For people with a sudden herniated disk caused by some type of trauma (like a car accident or lifting a heavy object), immediately followed by acute back pain and leg were prescription narcotic analgesics and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).
• If the patient has back spasms, usually given muscle relaxants and, on rare occasions, steroids may be given either by pill or directly into the bloodstream through an intravenous (IV).
• NSAIDs are used to control prolonged pain, but narcotics may be given if the pain does not respond to anti-inflammatory drugs.
LIFESTYLE CHANGES:
• Any extra weight being carried by an individual, especially in the top front of the abdomen, worsen any back pain. Exercise and diet are crucial to improving back pain in overweight patients.
• Physiotherapy is important to almost all people with disease disc. The therapists provide advice on how to properly lift, walk, dress and perform other activities. They will also work on strengthening the muscles of the abdomen and lower back to help support the spine. The flexibility of the spine and legs is taught in many therapy programs.
• Some recommend the use of braces (brace) for the back to help support the spine. However, overuse of these devices can weaken the abdominal muscles and back, causing a worsening of the problem. Special straps to lift weights can be useful to prevent injuries in those whose work involves heavy lifting.
SURGERY:
• For the few patients whose symptoms persist despite the above interventions, surgery may be a good choice.
• discectomy is a procedure that requires general anesthesia to remove a protruding disc. The hospital stay is 2 to 3 days. The patient is encouraged to walk the first day after surgery to reduce the risk deTVP.
• Full recovery takes several weeks. If it is necessary to remove more than one disc or if there are other problems in the back besides a herniated disk, may require more extensive surgery, which may require a recovery period much longer.
• Other surgical options include microdiscectomy, a procedure removing fragments of nucleated disk through a very small incision.
• Chemonucleolysis involves the injection of an enzyme (called chymopapain) into the herniated disk to dissolve the protruding gelatinous substance. This procedure may be an alternative to diskectomy in certain situations.
Expectations (prognosis):
• Most people improve with conservative treatment and only a small percentage continues to suffer from chronic back pain even after treatment.
• It may take several months to a year or more for the patient can resume all activities without pain or tightness in the back. It is possible that people with certain occupations that involve heavy lifting or straining your back have to change job activities to prevent recurrent back injury.
Complications • Chronic back pain
• Permanent injury to the spinal cord (rare)
- loss of movement or sensation in the feet or las piernas
– pérdida de la función de la vejiga y de los intestinos
Prevención
• Las prácticas seguras durante el trabajo y el juego, las técnicas apropiadas para levantar objetos y el control de peso pueden ayudar a prevenir las lesiones de espalda en algunas personas.
HIDROCEFALIA:
• ESPACIO DEL LIQUIDO CEFALORRAQUIDEO
• El líquido cefalorraquídeo circula normalmente por el sistema ventricular, que encierra el espacio interno, y por el espacio subaracnoideo, el espacio externo, pasando por los orificios de Luschka y de Magendie. El líquido es producido por los plexos coroideos y reabsorbido en parte por las vellosidades of Pacchioni. In adults, usually amounting to about 150 ml, of which about a quarter are located in the ventricular system. Normally produce and reabsorb about 20 milliliters per hour, about 500 ml per day.
CONCEPT AND METHODS OF HYDROCEPHALUS
• Hydrocephalus is essentially a pathological increase of cerebrospinal fluid, which especially in children leads to increased brain volume and head. Dilation of the ventricular system causes a pressure atrophy. The atrophy may be so strong that the brain walls are reduced to a millimeter thick. • distinguish
pathogenetic hydrocephalus communicating and not communicating.
• In the first form the liquid flows freely through the internal and external spaces. This is an increase in fluid reabsorption by decreasing or overproduction. The most common form is the first condition. This is caused by blockage of the hairs usually Pacchioni fibrosis. The fibrosis may be a sequel to meningitis or meningeal hemorrhage. Hydrocephalus caused by overproduction is rare and may occur in cases of choroid plexus papilloma.
• In noncommunicating hydrocephalus there is a blockage in the flow of the liquid located between the sites of production and resorption. The most commonly frequent in the aqueduct, where the obstruction can be caused by a malformation with branching and stenosis by inflammation or tumors. Less commonly the blockage is in the holes of Luschka and Magendie, caused by fibrosis as a consequence of inflammation or bleeding.
• Causes of hydrocephalus:
• There are many causes within the most frequent are: tumors that obstruct the normal circulation, bleeding, head trauma, infections (meningitis), stroke in certain areas, bruising, parasitic diseases in the nervous system (such as neuro-cysticercosis) some obstructions and congenital malformations of the nervous system (brain and spinal or vertebral column). There are also called primary hydrocephalus, where there is no clear causal for the genesis of hydrocephalus.
Symptoms:
• The symptoms usually are due to increased pressure inside the skull or intracranial hypertension due to abnormal accumulation of cerebrospinal liquid. These consist of severe headache and increasing (more commonly in the morning), vomiting, impaired consciousness (drowsiness, somnolence), changes in vision and eyes, trouble walking, impaired breathing, among others. In the long term, untreated hydrocephalus can time serious intellectual sequelae in patients, especially children (delays).
• In young children, when the skull has not closed yet, you can see an abnormal increase in head size and a protrusion at the level of Fontanellas or soft spots. Symptoms, especially in acute hydrocephalus, a patient can lead to coma and even death without appropriate treatment. Acute Hydrocephalus
• hydrocephalus is a type of violent onset that quickly leads to a syndrome of intracranial hypertension and can cause death if not resolved. The patient moves from normal to eat quickly, and there is usually a history of trauma, bleeding, stroke, an infection of the nervous system, brain tumors that have complicated and others. This table often occurs in patients previously operated for hydrocephalus in which the fluid diverter valve that is installed can be covered or dysfunction.
What normo-tensive hydrocephalus or hydrocephalus in adults?
• A special type of hydrocephalus where the pressure of cerebrospinal fluid is normal or slightly increased (hence the name), which usually occurs in older adults with impaired absorption of fluid is not produced by any specific disease (primary) and it causes very characteristic symptoms: impaired consciousness (memory and other skills), a particular imbalance in walking and loss of sphincter control. This triad (3 symptoms) feature can occur in elderly patients for many other reasons (dementia, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's disease, genital prolapse, multiple strokes, etc.) So that the diagnosis of this type of hydrocephalus is particularly difficult and requires a careful medical assessment, special tests and sometimes therapeutic trials with serial lumbar punctures.
Diagnosis:
Diagnosis is based on a rigorous assessment specialist with the support of imaging tests like magnetic resonance scanner, which will increase the size of the cerebral ventricles. In the case of normo-tensive hydrocephalus are also requested a special study of the circulation of fluid called radio-isotope cisternography, where a measurable isotope is introduced into the cerebrospinal fluid to determine its absorption.
• In the case of a patient previously operated and suspected a malfunction of the valve but not fully clarified by the initial images and when it is not an absolute emergency, you may also do a valvulografía, which determines a possible obstruction of the valve and the latter's position.
Treatment:
• When hydrocephalus diagnosed with certainty, the procedures are designed to remove excess fluid puts pressure on the nervous system. For this there are drainage systems (internal and external) and neuro-endoscopy.
• Internal systems are valves that can be ventriculo-peritoneal (the most often used to draw fluid from the cerebral ventricles to peritoneum in the abdomen where it gets reabsorbed) ventriculo-atrial (from the ventricles into a cavity of the heart, reserved for special cases); valves lumbo-peritoneal (from fluid in the lumbar region into the peritoneum in abdomen), among the most used. Systems operate at different pressures and adjustable pressure valve to be used depending on the case.
• The external drainage of cerebrospinal fluid are temporary and serve to pass an emergency where the cause of hydrocephalus is not supposed to be permanent, or when an infection can not be for some time install a valve definitive risk contamination. These systems are introduced into the ventricles and fluid accumulates in a reservoir bag or sterile. In some cases the catheter can drain the fluid from the area of \u200b\u200bthe spine to an external reservoir (in some cases of communicating hydrocephalus).
• The neuro-endoscopy is a breakthrough in the treatment of hydrocephalus of non-communicating or obstructive type. This procedure makes a small hole in the base of the brain that produces a by-pass bridge that bypasses the site of the blockage in certain types of hydrocephalus. This allows not stop valves. However, you can only raise this procedure in a group of patients, usually in pediatric patients.
Forecast and possible sequelae of hydrocephalus
• This is very variable and depends heavily on other diseases of the patient, such as hydrocephalus and early diagnosis and treatment. If the cause of hydrocephalus manages to be treated, and it is managed and compensated hydrocephalus, evolution can be successful and you can choose to optimal quality of life. A patient with a bypass valve can perform a completely normal life. The most common complications of these valves are possible infections and obstructions
• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) bathes the brain and spinal cord. The highest concentration of this fluid is located in the ventricles of the brain, which are large cavities that produce and reabsorb the CSF.
• In cases of hydrocephalus, the ventricles of the brain increase in size the effect of cerebrospinal fluid. This causes the brain tissue is compressed against the skull and cause serious neurological problems, so it is necessary to place a shunt, also called ventriculoperitoneal shunt to drain excess fluid and relieve pressure on the brain. This procedure should be performed as soon as hydrocephalus is diagnosed, to offer the child the best neurological perspectives.
• A flap is cut in the scalp to drill a small hole in the skull, while the patient is in the operating room under general anesthesia.
• A small catheter is inserted into one of the ventricles of the brain and you connect a pump to keep the fluid away from the brain. Another catheter is connected to the pump and placed in a tunnel (under the skin) behind the ear, that goes down the neck and chest. The catheter should reach the peritoneal cavity or abdominal cavity, where the fluid is absorbed.
• Often the ventriculo peritoneal is crucial to prevent and avoid serious brain damage in children with hydrocephalus. Common problems associated with ventriculo peritoneal include the same malfunction and shunt infection.
• However, when there is no problem, they often leave the derivation for many years.
NURSING CARE OF PATIENTS WITH NEUROLOGICAL
NURSING CARE PLAN IN ACV. • Assessment
- Making history, how the symptoms started and how long.
- Level of consciousness
- Headache
-
vision disturbances - signs of hypertensive crisis (redness, tinnitus)
- previous pathologies (hypertension, arrhythmias)
- Difficulty breathing
- Rating hemodynamic (hypertension associated with bradycardia)
- Rating neurologic
- size and reaction of pupils.
- Language, memory, comprehension (dysarthria)
- motor response (movement of limbs)
- signs are valued and Brudzinsky Kerning.
-
usual treatment - Urinary incontinence
- muscular flaccidity
- Disorientation, agitation or drowsiness
- emotional lability
- aphasia, apraxia, hemianopsia, hemiparesis, anisocoria
- Seizures
- Paralysis Nursing Diagnoses
sensory perception disorders associated with brain damage caused by the disease process
Impaired physical mobility associated with decline of brain function
functional urinary incontinence associated with impaired cognitive and sensory
risk of aspiration associated with a decreased level of consciousness and reflexes
Objectives
gradually Regain sensory perception functions, aided by interdisciplinary therapy.
gradually recover mobility features of the limbs. Lost
functionality of the bladder and sphincter, with the help of therapy and exercises.
Reduce the risk of aspiration with preventive measures.
Implementation and activities • Conduct monitoring the vital signs according to patient severity.
• Maintain adequate food supply
• Attend
• If the patient has difficulty swallowing keep feeding baby food. • Maintain position
fowler. • Installing SNY
feed if necessary.
• Care nasojejunal tube. • Maintain adequate hydration
• Teaching family to care to be maintained during feeding.
• In patients with hemiparesis, performing daily exercise program and coordination with physical therapist.
• Making changes of positions and bedsore prevention every 2 hours.
• Schedule an early ambulation.
• In patients with urinary incontinence avoid the use of urinary catheters.
• Start education program bladder
• Schedule frequent genital grooming.
• Avoid use of diapers and encourage the patient to urinate at least every two hours.
• Avoid liquids that increase urine output during the acute stage.
• Teaching to perform Kegel exercises to strengthen pelvic floor muscles.
• Teach breathing exercises improve breathing capacity pair.
• Prevention of DVT in immobilized patient.
• Encourage the patient to perform self-care activities alone.
• Maintain proper sleep patterns, avoid nighttime stimulation.
• Use natural methods to induce sleep, music, relaxation methods.
• Management of sleep medications as directed by medical.
• Help the patient to recognize their limitations and how to deal with them.
• Education on temporary or permanent changes that may occur to the patient. Evaluation
• The multidisciplinary therapy helped patients regain function gradually deteriorated during the stroke.
• The patient gradually regained lost mobility during the evolution of stroke.
• The patient regains its function to maintain urinary continence sphincter using exercises and therapy.
• The patient has no signs or symptoms of aspiration pneumonia during hospitalization.
NURSING CARE OF PATIENTS WITH INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Assessment
- Signs and symptoms of infectious (ears, lungs, sore throat, etc.).
- lethargy, irritability, drowsiness, seizures, behavioral disorders, focal deficits, hemiparesis.
- vomiting, fever, dry skin and mucous membranes.
- Signs and symptoms of shock
- headache and stiff neck
- Seizures
- Presence of cutaneous rush, petechiae or purpura (meningococcal meningitis)
- Kerning and Brudzinski signs
Nursing Diagnoses infectious process associated with hyperthermia
cerebral intracranial pressure increased inflammatory process associated with risk of deterioration
cognitive function, sensory and motor cerebral pathological process associated with
Objectives - Maintain a temperature below 37 ° C helped physical and therapeutic measures.
- Promote the reduction and prevent the increase in ICP with therapeutic measures and nursing.
- Reduce the risk of deterioration of brain functions across medical and therapeutic measures. Performances and activities
• Control of vital signs and T ° every 2 to 4 hours in the acute phase.
• Administration of antipyretic medications as directed.
• Application of physical for fever.
• Increase hydration and fluid intake. BH
• EVA • Assess pain characteristics.
• Administration of pain medication as medical indication. • Avoid overstimulation
environmental and noise.
• Keep room with dim light. • Restrict visits
case suspend bacterial meningitis.
• Avoid vomiting, if you have to ask the doctor antiheméticos management. • Keep head
30 ° with the head in midline.
• Avoid prolonged efforts (defecar9
• neurological assessment continuously for at least 4 times a day for signs of neurological impairment.
• Protect against falls.
• Attending physician for lumbar puncture:
- Preparation of material (trocar, syringes, culture bottles, clothing, etc.).
- Position of the patient.
- Monitoring
- Care puncture
promote patient mobility passive exercises. Prevention of thromboembolism
Perform patient comfort.
Observe signs and symptoms of seizures
Evaluation • Patient presenting its temperature decreases new pick fever.
• The patient shows no signs of increased intracranial pressure.
• Patient to its high deficit shows no signs of cognitive, sensory or motor.
NURSING CARE degenerative
• Assessment - Anamnesis
- Duration
box -
to Symptoms - Engine: loss of strength fatigue, clumsiness, spasticity, dysphagia.
- Sensitive: numbness, paresthesia, decreased sensation, Lhermitte's sign (electric shock sensation)
- Visuals: optic neuritis, blurred vision, diplopia.
- Sphincter: spastic bladder hyperreflexivity (Incontinence), urinary retention, constipation, rectal urgency or incontinence.
- Sex: lack of desire, impotence, decreased sensitivity.
- Psychological: euphoria, cognitive disturbances.
- Onset of symptoms in outbreaks last for days, weeks or months.
- Symptoms can is related to endogenous or exogenous factors such as elevation of the t ° body, emotional stress, fatigue and viral infections.
- Rate
ulcers - Power Type
- Altered urinary or fecal.
- disorders of gait.
- Activities of daily living performed.
Nursing diagnosis
physical mobility impairment associated with disorder of neuromuscular function.
Altered urinary excretion associated with spinal cord dysfunction and impaired cognitive and motor skills.
body image disturbance associated with progressive deterioration of cognitive functions, sensory and motor. Objectives
Lost or decrease physical inactivity through comprehensive program of exercises
Regain urinary function appropriate to the patient.
help the patient maintain a healthy body image adapting to physical and intellectual changes that will arise.
Execution and activities
• Carrying out a program of exercises with rest periods.
• Help plan activities to avoid wastage of energy.
• Drug Administration for spasticity according to medical indications. • Avoid self-medication
• Make prevention of bedsores
• Adapting your home to meet the changes in his daily life
• Maintain a balanced diet
• Prevent constipation
• Facilitate access to the bathroom
• Establish regular times for
toilet • Use of urinary catheters only when necessary.
• Education families and caregivers about the disease process and home care. Evaluation
• The patient has a good mobility without showing greater degree of impairment.
• The patient recovers all or part of urinary function.
• Patient to its high is calm with a good adaptation to their shortcomings and improve their body image.
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